The Reinvention of the Alleged Vermont and New Hampshire Abenakis: Preliminary Report on Abenaki Petition for Tribal Recognition - [Exhibits]: March 12, 2002: Exhibit 2

United States Department of the Interior

Office of Indian Affairs

FILES

CAUTION!

Positively no papers to be added or taken from this file, except by an employee of the Mails and Files Division.

File No. 671 - 1935 (150)

Gladys Tantaquidgeon's report on community life, etc.,

of New England Indian Groups

Gladys Tantaquidgeon (June 15, 1899 to November 01, 2005) was a Mohegan anthropologist, author, council member, and elder.

Page 01

December 06 1934

Letter to: the Honorable John Collier

Commission on Indian Affairs

Washington, D.C.

Page 02

December 06 1934

Letter to: the Honorable John Collier

Commission on Indian Affairs

Washington, D.C.

Page 01

The New England Indians

Contact With Eurpoeans. The earliest description of the aborigines inhabiting the coast from the present Maine to New York was written by the Italian navigator Verrazano who established contact with the natives in 1524-25. (1) Other accounts were given by the French and English voyagers, Gosnold (1602) (2), Champlain (1605) (3), John Smith (1615) (4), Josselyn (1638) and others. Dutch contacts came by way of the Connecticut river about 1614. (6) The English settlement at Plymouth, Massachusetts marked the beginning of permanent occupation by Europeans of the area.

Population. That the Indians in New England numbered about 25,000 in 1600 was the estimate given by the late James Mooney in 1921. (7)

Linguistic Identification. All of the New England tribes belonged to what is known as Eastern-Central Division of the Algonkian linguistic stock. (8)

(See Image for Footnotes)

Page 02

Classification According to Culture. The New England Tribes belonged to what is known as the Eastern Algonkian Division of the Eastern Woodland Culture Area. Following a survey of certain culture features, the New England area has been sub-divided as outlined in studies prepared by Dr. Dixon (1), Dr. Speck (2) and other authorities in the field of Anthropology. In brief, the outlines refer to a 'northern' and a 'southern' division, the Merrimac river serving as an approximate boundary line between the two. North of the Merrimac were the Wabanaki peoples. (3) Some of the better known tribes in the Wabanaki=Abenaki Confederacy in New England were the Pigwacket, Sokoki, Arrosaguntacook, Norridgewock, Wawenock, and the surviving bands, the Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, Malecite and the neighboring Micmac in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Hunting was an important factor in the life of the Wabanaki. Other features of the northern division were the family hunting territories, rather loosely organized society, and the confederacy patterned after that of the Iroquois. The extensive use of birchbark covered tipi, and distinctive features in decorative art (4) characterized the northern portion of the area. Archaeological remains show limited forms in utensils and the pottery, when found, is crude.

(See Image for Footnotes)

Page 03

Classification According to Culture. (continued)

In the southern portion of the area there wre confederated tribes which took their names (confederacy) from the larger ruling tribes such as the Massachusetts, Wampanoag, Nauset, Pocumtuc, Nipmuc, Mohegan-Pequot, Narragansett, and Wappinger. In contrast to Wabanaki culture, the tirbes of the southern New England ara were more dedentary and practised agriculture. They were more closely organized and the ruling chiefs exercised absolute authority over their subjects. The mat covered dome-shaped dwellings, long and round houses, and the dug out canoe were characteristic of this portion of the area. Pottery and decorative show Iroquoian influence. Archaeological remains show a variety of forms and a greater abundance.

Decline and Dispersion. That the Indian tribes of New England were unable to survive the destructive powers of the new civilization which, were forced upon them is well known. Epidemics of small pox and fevers killed thousands. Many lost their lives in the wars of the 17th and 18th centuries. A few sough refuge with the tribes to the north and west of them, thus severing connections with their respective bands. With the exception of the tribes in Maine, the remaining Indian population, in New England is made up of decultured remnant groups.

The preceding resume will serve as an introduction to the notes on the present status of the surviving bands which follow.

Page 04

Social Status. There are nearly 3,000 Indian descendants in the surviving bands in the New England area. Due to the absence of tribal records, the custom of listing the Indians as 'black' or 'negro' in certain records, and the lack of anthropological data it is impossible to prepare an accurate and detailed account of the mixed bloods in the area. We have evidence to show that this intermixture began early and has continued within the various groups. In view of this blending for over a period of several centuries it is not surprising to find that the degree of Indian blood in the veins of the large percentage of our Indian descendants is slight. In the northern portion of the area, among the Wabanaki peoples, there has been a strong infusion of French blood since early times, and also some English, Scotch, and Irish. These are more northerly groups escaped the infusion of Negro blood, for which they are duly glad. (It is quite sage to say that the Penobscot and Passamaquoddy average about 1/2 Indian blood. A few approach 3/4. A few claim the distinction of being full blooded Indians and whom shall we delegate to refute the statements made by these individuals in regard to degree of Indian blood? This situation requires special handling. At the moment, the problem confronting the members of these two groups is what to do with the increasing number of whites who are marrying Indian descendants and going back to the reservation to live. The agent and Indian leaders say that the whites who marry Indian of 1/4 Indian blood or less, as a rule, have large families which have to be supported out of the tribal funds. The Indians realize that unless they make a move to remedy this state of affairs, that there is trouble ahead. The mixed Indian groups have

Page 05

Social Status. (continued)

intermarried so that in one group we find a number of tribes represented. In the case of the Penobscot we find that the Malecite have contributed largely in making up the group, it being estimated by some of the leaders of the tribe that the present group is 50% Malecite. The Passamaquoddy have fewer Indians from the other tribes listed among them.

In southern New England, our Indian communities have been, and still are, melting pots. Beginning with the early French and English contacts, and continuing through the later period of intensive whaling industries along our coast during which time the men from many lands married and settled in the Indian communities, the march has gone and the Indian blood continues to be diluted. The infusion of Negro blood was strong in this portion of the area in certain tribes and scientists are of the opinion that many of the smaller tribes along the coast became completely absorbed. (1) Here there are but few who are of 1/2 Indian blood and a mere handful can claim 3/4 Indian blood. The majority average 1/4 or less. There appears to have less intermarriage among the members of the mixed-indian groups in southern New England which may have attributed to the feuds of earlier days. The old animosities die hard not only in the attiude of the Indians toward the members of other Indian groups but also toward the whites. Final figures cannot be furnished until our tribal records have been properly prepared and tot he satisfaction of all concerned. This will require more time and in some cases the services of an anthropologist may be needed.

(See Image for Footnotes)

Page 06

Social Status. (continued)

The most complex case is that the Narragansett of Rhode Island who number more than 250 descendants. It is well known that the degree of Indian blood in the Narragansett descendants is low. (1) In view of certain social and political factors to be considered in this particular case it is necessary to proceed slowly.

In introducing facts it has been stated that the intermixture in the area has been constant since the beginning of outside contacts. In spite of the hetergeneous group composition as found in New England many of the aboriginal culture traits persisted among the mixed Idnians until a fairly late date. It would seem that many of the aliens who joined our groups in early times became absorbed and became a part of Indian society. The blending has continued and the blood has become more and more diluted but the fact that we find these remnant groups living like Indians, as nearly as possible, and clinging tenacioiusly to the few surviving culture properties makes us feel less alarmed when told that our New England Indians are on the verge of complete assimilation or when one is branded the "last of the mohegan or Mohican."

(See Image for Footnotes)