Preliminary Report on Abenaki Petition for Tribal Recognition - [Exhibits]: March 12, 2002: Exhibit 2 - Continued:

Surviving Indian Groups of the Eastern United States

By William Gilbert

Library of Congress

Washington, D.C.

Page 409 Surviving Indian groups - Gilbert

No. 4. Vermont

No surviving social groups of Indians

are recorded for Vermont,

although the census records

a few scattered individuals.

Smithsonian Institution

Bureau of American Ethnology

Bulletin 145

The Indian Tribes of North America

By John R. Swanton

1952

Page 13 Maine

Abnaki. Properly Wabanki.....

(continued)

Page 14 Bureau of American Ethnology [Bulleton 145]

(continued)

[Swanton] Indian Tribes of North America Page 15

(continued)

Page 18 Bureau of American Ethnology [Bulletin 145]

(continued)

VERMONT

Abnaki. An Abnaki band known as the Missisasik was at one time settled on Missisquoi River in Franklin County. (See Maine.)

[Swanton] Indian Tribes of North America Page 19

(continued)

Pennacook. The eastern margins of Vermont were occupied by the Pennacook, who must have hunted considerably within its borders. (See New Hampshire.)

Preliminary Report on Abenaki Petition for Tribal Recognition - [Exhibits]: March 12, 2002: Exhibit 2 - Continued:

What the Indians are asking for

Names of agents, chiefs, overseers.

January 04, 1935 No. 671

Bibliography (Cited Sources) 

Bibliography (continued)

Bibliography (continued)

Bibliography (continued)

J.D. Prince and Frank G. Speck

(cited work)

Bibliography (continued)

Frank G. Speck (cited work)

Bibliography (continued)

Frank G. Speck (cited work continued)

Ezra Stiles (cited work)

Bibliography (continued)

Gladys I. Tantaquidgeon (cited work)

J.H. Trumbull (cited work)

John Verarzanus (cited work)

William Wood (cited work)

Roger Williams (cited work)

Bibliography (continued)

Charles C. Willoughby (cited works)

Preliminary Report on Abenaki Petition for Tribal Recognition - [Exhibits]: March 12, 2002: Exhibit 2 - Continued:

Page 15

Observations on Community Life.

Despite the rapid advance of civilization and its disastrous effect upon the Indian population in New England, there are a few survivors to be found in the different communities in which we find the same strength of character and poise which characterized their aboriginal ancestors. This does not necessarily apply exclusively to the older members of the groups in question for we have a group of younger Indians who are strongly Indian conscious in manner and philosophy of life. I do not allude to the spectacular side of Indian life, that is, merely wearing the garb and performing before the public, but rather to the true inner convictions of the individuals. The modern trend of events conflict with the ideas of conservative Indians. Therefore, there is a general desire on the part of our better organized groups of Indian descendants for seclusion and quiet. They are, naturally, more thoughtful and in harmony with nature which tends toward making them better constituted for rural life than the average white groups. The yearly round of events furnish work and pleasure for the average Indian and he appears not to be concerned with the problems of modern times.

There are also those who have left the Indian reservations and towns to seek fame and fortune in the white man's world. OF this absentee wandering element, only a small percentage have been successful. Home and family mean much to the Indian and many who have wandered far and near finally return to their respective groups to settle down in their natural environment. A few have profited by their experiences and are working for the good of the members of their tribes

Page 16

Observations on Community Life. (continued)

while others return sick and discouraged.

A glance at the accompanying chart will show that in this area there are State Reservations, non-reservation groups, and independent Indian towns. In addition to the various types of government, heterogeneous group composition, both in ethnic, and physical traits, present problems which deserve most careful consideration.

Much of the way of social and economic reconstruction in the various groups can be accomplished through strengthening of our local tribal organizations. This applies more specifically to the small groups in southern New England. While our Maine groups do need a great deal of help and encouragement in maintaining their tribal organizations that are so well established, the groups in the southern portion of the area are so hopelessly in the dark at the present time. With the exception of the Mohegan-Pequot, the other groups in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut (Pequot proper) have not kept up tribal organizations, but have been endeavoring to reorganize and gain recognition for over a period of some twenty years. Some have been successful in reviving a spark of the old life of their tribes and others are still creeping. There is something strangely pathetic in the scenes presented by these groups of Indian descendants who are making desperate efforts to hold their place in Indian society, or perhaps I should say, to regain their place. Ten years ago, an attempt was made by an elderly historian and Indian enthusiast of Rhode Island to form a New England Indian Council. This man's dream was to have a confederacy and to have it include all of the surviving bands of Indian descendants living in

Page 17

Observations on Community Life. (continued)

New England. Delegates from every band attended the first meeting and it was an impressive and decisive meeting. The Maine Indians were not favorably impressed by the mixed Indian and Negro element representing certain of the groups and the old animosities of the groups in southern New England toward one another was a cause of nearly all of the groups dropping out after the first year. The organization has survived with a following of whites and some Indian descendants but it is not a New England Indian Council. A similar organization was started a few years later by an Indian leader of the Pequot tribe but a confederacy is short lived in this area. Independent tribal organizations can be successful if organized and managed properly. The Indian descendants are beginning to see the value of group organization in communities where they have been loosely organized. What they need is advice and help, perhaps some special training of leaders in one or two cases.

Through improved tribal organizations, community life in the Indian towns will take more interest in things in general. The organization will have a health committee, an education committee. And with active health and education committees the reconstructive program will be well underway. We lack leadership in the New England field and the Indians prefer Indian leadership. Along with the proposed improvement in local tribe organization there is much to be done to preserve the arts and crafts, language and ceremonies and to revive certain of the above traits that have been lost or with the members of the groups are only slightly acquainted.

Page 18

Observation on Community Life. (continued)

Many will contend that our Indians are not resourceful and that they lack initiative. Others there are who question the integrity of the Indian. We excuse these accusations knowing that the average white man does not understand the Indian and we do not understand the white man. We do not like the speed and apparent efficiency with which the white man approaches us and we drew within our shells. The Indian is skeptical and rightly so after centuries of persecution and injustice. An educated or "city Indian" is treated very much the same as a white person if he goes back to his group with the high powered salesman attitude. If he returns as one of them, living with them to learn from them and in return teaching by act, rather than word, some of the worthwhile things which has learned from his outside experiences, he will ever have the confidence of his people. Two things are necessary to accomplish this--time and tact. In this machine age, no doubt, it is distressing to certain observers to view the conservative members of our Indian communities in their apparent contented state and laissez faire attitude toward modern problems. This does not mean that the Indian is not resourceful and that he is lazy. In viewing conditions in the various communities one is soon convinced that the Indians are resourceful and that they have to work very hard for the few material comforts which they enjoy. They are very ingenious, evidence of which is visible in every dwelling or camp.

There is a tendency on the part of the members of certain white communities to class the Indian in their towns with the criminal and inebriated element of the population but personal investigations

Page 19

Observations on Community Life. (continued)

show that minor crimes and intemperance average about the same as in white communities and in most cases less in proportion to the population. It should be noted that major crimes are absent. Generally speaking, the Indians are not profane. Where intemperance and sloth do exist the conditions are brought about through contacts with undesirables from neighboring towns. The effect of such contacts is noticeable in the Mashpee, (Mass.) Penobscot and Passamaquoddy (Maine) settlements. In the case of the Gay Head band, isolation has been a blessing in many ways. There in there Island settlement one finds a group not breaking under the contaminating influence of civilization.

Preliminary Report on Abenaki Petition for Tribal Recognition - [Exhibits]: March 12, 2002: Exhibit 2 - Continued:

United States Department of the Interior

Office of Indian Affairs

FILES

CAUTION!

Positively no papers to be added or taken from this file, except by an employee of the Mails and Files Division.

File No. 671 - 1935 (150)

Gladys Tantaquidgeon's report on community life, etc.,

of New England Indian Groups

Gladys Tantaquidgeon (June 15, 1899 to November 01, 2005) was a Mohegan anthropologist, author, council member, and elder.

Page 01

December 06 1934

Letter to: the Honorable John Collier

Commission on Indian Affairs

Washington, D.C.

Page 02

December 06 1934

Letter to: the Honorable John Collier

Commission on Indian Affairs

Washington, D.C.

Page 01

The New England Indians

Contact With Eurpoeans. The earliest description of the aborigines inhabiting the coast from the present Maine to New York was written by the Italian navigator Verrazano who established contact with the natives in 1524-25. (1) Other accounts were given by the French and English voyagers, Gosnold (1602) (2), Champlain (1605) (3), John Smith (1615) (4), Josselyn (1638) and others. Dutch contacts came by way of the Connecticut river about 1614. (6) The English settlement at Plymouth, Massachusetts marked the beginning of permanent occupation by Europeans of the area.

Population. That the Indians in New England numbered about 25,000 in 1600 was the estimate given by the late James Mooney in 1921. (7)

Linguistic Identification. All of the New England tribes belonged to what is known as Eastern-Central Division of the Algonkian linguistic stock. (8)

(See Image for Footnotes)

Page 02

Classification According to Culture. The New England Tribes belonged to what is known as the Eastern Algonkian Division of the Eastern Woodland Culture Area. Following a survey of certain culture features, the New England area has been sub-divided as outlined in studies prepared by Dr. Dixon (1), Dr. Speck (2) and other authorities in the field of Anthropology. In brief, the outlines refer to a 'northern' and a 'southern' division, the Merrimac river serving as an approximate boundary line between the two. North of the Merrimac were the Wabanaki peoples. (3) Some of the better known tribes in the Wabanaki=Abenaki Confederacy in New England were the Pigwacket, Sokoki, Arrosaguntacook, Norridgewock, Wawenock, and the surviving bands, the Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, Malecite and the neighboring Micmac in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Hunting was an important factor in the life of the Wabanaki. Other features of the northern division were the family hunting territories, rather loosely organized society, and the confederacy patterned after that of the Iroquois. The extensive use of birchbark covered tipi, and distinctive features in decorative art (4) characterized the northern portion of the area. Archaeological remains show limited forms in utensils and the pottery, when found, is crude.

(See Image for Footnotes)

Page 03

Classification According to Culture. (continued)

In the southern portion of the area there wre confederated tribes which took their names (confederacy) from the larger ruling tribes such as the Massachusetts, Wampanoag, Nauset, Pocumtuc, Nipmuc, Mohegan-Pequot, Narragansett, and Wappinger. In contrast to Wabanaki culture, the tirbes of the southern New England ara were more dedentary and practised agriculture. They were more closely organized and the ruling chiefs exercised absolute authority over their subjects. The mat covered dome-shaped dwellings, long and round houses, and the dug out canoe were characteristic of this portion of the area. Pottery and decorative show Iroquoian influence. Archaeological remains show a variety of forms and a greater abundance.

Decline and Dispersion. That the Indian tribes of New England were unable to survive the destructive powers of the new civilization which, were forced upon them is well known. Epidemics of small pox and fevers killed thousands. Many lost their lives in the wars of the 17th and 18th centuries. A few sough refuge with the tribes to the north and west of them, thus severing connections with their respective bands. With the exception of the tribes in Maine, the remaining Indian population, in New England is made up of decultured remnant groups.

The preceding resume will serve as an introduction to the notes on the present status of the surviving bands which follow.

Page 04

Social Status. There are nearly 3,000 Indian descendants in the surviving bands in the New England area. Due to the absence of tribal records, the custom of listing the Indians as 'black' or 'negro' in certain records, and the lack of anthropological data it is impossible to prepare an accurate and detailed account of the mixed bloods in the area. We have evidence to show that this intermixture began early and has continued within the various groups. In view of this blending for over a period of several centuries it is not surprising to find that the degree of Indian blood in the veins of the large percentage of our Indian descendants is slight. In the northern portion of the area, among the Wabanaki peoples, there has been a strong infusion of French blood since early times, and also some English, Scotch, and Irish. These are more northerly groups escaped the infusion of Negro blood, for which they are duly glad. (It is quite sage to say that the Penobscot and Passamaquoddy average about 1/2 Indian blood. A few approach 3/4. A few claim the distinction of being full blooded Indians and whom shall we delegate to refute the statements made by these individuals in regard to degree of Indian blood? This situation requires special handling. At the moment, the problem confronting the members of these two groups is what to do with the increasing number of whites who are marrying Indian descendants and going back to the reservation to live. The agent and Indian leaders say that the whites who marry Indian of 1/4 Indian blood or less, as a rule, have large families which have to be supported out of the tribal funds. The Indians realize that unless they make a move to remedy this state of affairs, that there is trouble ahead. The mixed Indian groups have

Page 05

Social Status. (continued)

intermarried so that in one group we find a number of tribes represented. In the case of the Penobscot we find that the Malecite have contributed largely in making up the group, it being estimated by some of the leaders of the tribe that the present group is 50% Malecite. The Passamaquoddy have fewer Indians from the other tribes listed among them.

In southern New England, our Indian communities have been, and still are, melting pots. Beginning with the early French and English contacts, and continuing through the later period of intensive whaling industries along our coast during which time the men from many lands married and settled in the Indian communities, the march has gone and the Indian blood continues to be diluted. The infusion of Negro blood was strong in this portion of the area in certain tribes and scientists are of the opinion that many of the smaller tribes along the coast became completely absorbed. (1) Here there are but few who are of 1/2 Indian blood and a mere handful can claim 3/4 Indian blood. The majority average 1/4 or less. There appears to have less intermarriage among the members of the mixed-indian groups in southern New England which may have attributed to the feuds of earlier days. The old animosities die hard not only in the attiude of the Indians toward the members of other Indian groups but also toward the whites. Final figures cannot be furnished until our tribal records have been properly prepared and tot he satisfaction of all concerned. This will require more time and in some cases the services of an anthropologist may be needed.

(See Image for Footnotes)

Page 06

Social Status. (continued)

The most complex case is that the Narragansett of Rhode Island who number more than 250 descendants. It is well known that the degree of Indian blood in the Narragansett descendants is low. (1) In view of certain social and political factors to be considered in this particular case it is necessary to proceed slowly.

In introducing facts it has been stated that the intermixture in the area has been constant since the beginning of outside contacts. In spite of the hetergeneous group composition as found in New England many of the aboriginal culture traits persisted among the mixed Idnians until a fairly late date. It would seem that many of the aliens who joined our groups in early times became absorbed and became a part of Indian society. The blending has continued and the blood has become more and more diluted but the fact that we find these remnant groups living like Indians, as nearly as possible, and clinging tenacioiusly to the few surviving culture properties makes us feel less alarmed when told that our New England Indians are on the verge of complete assimilation or when one is branded the "last of the mohegan or Mohican."

(See Image for Footnotes)

Page 07 - 1

New England Groups 1934

Page 08 - 2

New England Groups 1934

Page 09 - 3

New England Groups 1934

Page 10 - 4

New England Groups 1934

Page 11 - 5

New England Groups 1934

(Health)

Page 12 - 6

New England Groups 1934

(Health)

Page 14 - 06 A

New England Groups 1934

(Culture Survivals)

Page 15 - 06 B

New England Groups 1934

(Culture Survivals)

Preliminary Report on Abenaki Petition for Tribal Recognition - [Exhibits]: March 12, 2002: Exhibit 2 - Continued:

H. R. Schoolcraft

Historical and Statistical Information

on the Indian Tribes of the United States

1851-1854

See abstract of Schoolcraft's work in table at beginning of Exhibit 2. The abstract is based on an examination of Schoolcraft's six-volume work which is available at the Special Collections Department of the University of Vermont Libraries.

Smithsonian Institution

Bureau of American Ethnology

Bulletin 30

Handbook of American Indians

North of Mexico

Edited by Frederick Webb Hodge

In Two Parts

Part 1

Washington

Government Printing Office

1907

PREFACE VIII (Page 08)

ABIHKA-ABNAKI Page 02

ABNAKI Page 03

ABNAKI Page 04

ABNAKI Page 5

MISNAGUA Page 879

Missiassik (on the etymology of the name, see McAleer, Study in the Etymology of Missisquoi, 1906). An Algonquin tribe or body of Indians belonging to the Abnaki group, formerly living on Missisquoi river in N. (northern) Vermont. Whether they formed a distinct tribe or a detached portion of some known Abnaki tribe is uncertain. If the latter, which seems probable, as the name "Wanderers" was sometimes applied to them, it is possible they were related to the Sokoki or to the Pequawket. They had a large village at the mouth of Missisquoi river, in Franklin county, on Lake Champlain, but abandoned it about 1730 on account of the ravages of an epidemic, and removed to St. Francis, Quebec. They subsequently sold their claims in Vermont to the "Seven Nations of Canada." Chauvignerie in 1736 gives 180 as the number of their warriors of 800. They seem to have been on peacable terms with the Iroquois.

The American Indian in the United States

Period 1850 - 1914

By Warren K. Moorehead, A.M.

The Present Condition of the American Indian;

His Political History and Other Topics

1914

The Andover Press

Andover, Massachusetts

Chapter III. The Indians Today

and Hon. E.E. Ayers Report

Page 32

The American Indian

Diagram of the Indian Service

The Indians are under the jurisdiction of the State of Maine. The Penobscots own all the islands in the Penobscot River between Oldtown and Millinockett. They are, for the most part, guides, farmers, carpenters, clerks and lumbermen. Many of them earn excellent wages--from $2 to $5 per day. I saw no evidences of poverty. The people are intelligent and of good character. Consumption is not common, and trachoma cases are rare.

Page 33

THE INDIANS TODAY

The reason for the splendid condition of the Penobscot and Passamaquoddy Indians should not be lost upon our officials and Indian Committees in authority in Congress.
They have been surrounded by a high class of white people, and have been left alone to develop and progress. While they have been protected by the State of Maine, no discrimination has been made against them, as in the case of Indians in Oklahoma, Minnesota, California and elsewhere. They enjoy the same citizenship as is conferred upon Whites, and its does not consist of "paper promises," but is real and effective. Theirs is no story of dishonesty and disease.
The past summer, while on an archaeological expedition on the St. John River, I visited three villages occupied by Malacite Indians, in New Brunswick, Canada. All of them are well situated, one at the mouth of the Tobique River; another at Edmonton; and a third near Woodstock. While these Indians are poor, there is no general pauperism, and their general health is better than among the Indians I have visited in our United States (exclusive of Maine).
In one respect the plans followed by the Canadian officials are superior to ours, and evidence more ability (or rather stability) in the handling of the Indians. Instead of allotting these Indians, giving theirs deeds to valuable property, permitting them to be swindled by unscrupulous white persons, and then spending years in profitless litigation, in an attempt to make grafters return property taken from the Indians, these Canadians have continued the reservation system under a modified form. The Indians own their tracts of land, as with us, but do not hold deeds, or trust patents to same, therefore the lands cannot be sold or mortgaged; thus the incentive to fraud is removed.
The Indians serve as farmers, guides, carpenters and fishermen. Most of them are Catholics, and there is a priest located at the Tobique, village. He lives among them and encourages them in various arts. The census gives a few Indians as residing in our eastern states, but they are white people in every way, save color. To discover the next body of Indians exceeding more than three or four hundred, we must go down South where we find a few bands of Cherokees in Swain and Jackson Counties, North Carolina; and scattered throughout Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama there are 1100 or 1200 residing on what was originally a part of the habitat of this great nation.
Some of the Iroquois still reside in western New York, notably in settlements not far from Buffalo. These Indians, as in the case of the North Carolina Cherokees, are chiefly mixed-bloods, have adopted our

THE INDIANS TODAY

Page 35 

customs, live in fairly comfortable houses and are in no need of Government supervision. Among the Iroquois of New York, the percentage of tuberculosis and other diseases was so low as to be practically nil. In one of the recent Government reports it is given as but a fraction over one per cent.

There has recently developed agitation seeking to break up their reservation. This is most unfortunate, as the tracts are small; the Indians are doing well and desire to be let alone. They deserve to remain in peaceful possession of their old-time homes.

All of the remaining Indians east of the Mississippi, and south of the Great Lakes need not enter into our discussion. Save for a noticeable Indian color in the case of some individuals, the bulk of them have ceased to be real Indians. The New York Iroquois, in recent times, have made creditable progress in arts, and have produced a number of prominent men and women: A large number of them serve in responsible positions and so far as they are concerned there is no Indian problem. We may, therefore, eliminate the eastern half of the United States, with the exception of Wisconsin, Michigan and Florida.
In Florida we have the descendants of the Seminoles, estimated at 600, and are an offshoot of the Creeks, or Muskokis. These still cling to their ancient homes in the Everglades, and have withstood all attempts to make of them either educated Indians or agency Indians. During Mr. Leupp's administration, he proposed to me that I go to Florida and spend a winter cultivating the friendship of these Indians and see if it were not possible to persuade them to send their children to school. I was unable to carry this mission into effect, but I understand that recently the Government sent a Special Agent there, who has compelled a number of the children to attend school. The draining of the Everglades is now well under way, and soon the hunting and fishing-grounds of these people will be very much restricted. They have always been self-supporting and they merit consideration, and should have our help. It is to be hoped that before the ditching of the Everglades is completed, these Indians will be properly provided for. This is a subject I would commend to the attention of the Federal authorities.
In Wisconsin we have quite a large number of Indians at the present, time, located on reservations, or clustered about schools. These number 9,930, and Wisconsin ranks ninth in the entire country in point of Indian population. Wisconsin is the first State, on our inspection tour from the East to the West, wherein we find a large body of Indians still in the transition period. They belong to the following bands: — the Ojibwa (Chippewa), Menominee, Potawatomi, Oneida, Winnebago and a few others.